Tem como objetivo refletir acerca do preconceito e da discriminação no âmbito das práticas colaborativas de representação de conteúdos por meio da Folksonomia. A pesquisa possui caráter qualitativo e a hermenêutica enquanto método, aliado à interdisciplinaridade de campos e de teorias. Quando não considerados no âmbito da Folksonomia, o preconceito e a discriminação emergem como uma gap epistêmica, uma vez que ambos podem se apropriar da Folksonomia para prosperar. Destaca que a Folksonomia não pressupõe a imposição de regras para a (...) seleção de tags a serem utilizadas pelos(as) usuários(as) em ambiente web, haja vista o seu caráter colaborativo. Por isso ela pode ser utilizada através da lógica do preconceito e discriminação, aplicada por humanos e/ou robôs (autônomos ou assistidos) para a rápida popularização de fake news e da cultura do cancelamento- algumas das estruturas perversas que promovem a vertigem da Sociedade da Informação, e que têm refletido sobre os sujeitos LGBTQIA+. (shrink)

Background Ethical decision making in intensive care is a demanding task. The need to proceed to ethical decision is considered to be a stress factor that may lead to burnout. The aim of this study is to explore the ethical problems that may increase burnout levels among physicians and nurses working in Portuguese intensive care units . A quantitative, multicentre, correlational study was conducted among 300 professionals.Results The most crucial ethical decisions made by professionals working in ICU were related to (...) communication, withholding or withdrawing treatments and terminal sedation. A positive relation was found between ethical decision making and burnout in nurses, namely, between burnout and the need to withdraw treatments , to withhold treatments and to proceed to terminal sedation . This did not apply to physicians. Emotional exhaustion was the burnout subdimension most affected by the ethical decision. The nurses' lack of involvement in ethical decision making was identified as a risk factor. Nevertheless, in comparison with nurses , it was the physicians who more keenly felt the need to proceed to ethical decisions in ICU.Conclusions Ethical problems were reported at different levels by physicians and nurses. The type of ethical decisions made by nurses working in Portuguese ICUs had an impact on burnout levels. This did not apply to physicians. This study highlights the need for education in the field of ethics in ICUs and the need to foster inter-disciplinary discussion so as to encourage ethical team deliberation in order to prevent burnout. (shrink)

BackgroundIn the last 2 weeks of January 2021, Portugal was the worst country in the world in incidence of infections and deaths due to COVID-19. As a result, the pressure on the healthcare system increased exponentially, exceeding its capacities and leaving hospitals in near collapse. This scenario caused multiple constraints, particularly for hospital medical staff. Previous studies conducted at different moments during the pandemic reported that COVID-19 has had significant negative impacts on healthcare workers’ psychological health, including stress, anxiety, depression, (...) burnout, post-traumatic stress symptoms, and sleep disturbances. However, there are many uncertainties regarding the professional quality of life of hospital nurses and physicians. To address gaps in previous research on secondary traumatic stress, we focused on healthcare workers working in hospitals affected by a major traumatic event: the third wave of COVID-19.ObjectivesThe aim of the present study was to identify the contribution of personal and work-related contextual variables on professional quality of life of healthcare workers.MethodsCross-sectional study with a web-based questionnaire given to physicians and nurses working in a hospital setting. A total of 853 healthcare professionals participated in the survey assessing professional quality of life compassion satisfaction, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout. Factors of professional quality of life were assessed using regression analysis.ResultsMost of the participants showed moderate or high levels of compassion satisfaction, whereas the majority of them experienced moderate levels of burnout and secondary traumatic stress. The analyzed variables demonstrated no differences between professionals who were directly or not involved in the care of COVID-19 patients. Parental status was found to be a significant factor in compassion satisfaction. Female gender was significantly associated with more susceptibility to secondary traumatization. Factors that may potentially contribute to burnout include years of professional experience and the number of work hours per week.ConclusionThe COVID-19 pandemic has created a new challenge for the healthcare system. Burnout and secondary traumatic stress can lead to medical errors and impact standards of patient care, particularly compromising compassionate care. It is therefore recommended that hospitals develop psychoeducational initiatives to support professionals in dealing with barriers to compassion. (shrink)

Cormac McCarthy’s No Country for Old Men, and Joel and Ethan Coen’s film adaptation of the same name, deliver two separate critiques of sacrificial violence through their particular renderings of Carla Jean Moss’s death scene, as they correspond, respectively, to the theories of René Girard and Slavoj Žižek. In both film and novel, the chase narrative offers a concrete representation of runaway acquisitive mimesis engendering resentment and cathartic violence. This violence is symbolically manifest in the character of Anton (...) Chigurh. An assassin whose killings often employ a ritual of chance, Chigurh is a symbol for both the violence foundational to culture and the fascinating draw such violence continues to have .. (shrink)

Este artículo tiene por objetivo realizar una crítica inmanente a la obra de Freud. Su principal hipótesis es que el concepto antropológico hobbesiano del estado de naturaleza, como la guerra de todos contra todos, infl uencia Freud y produce algunos impasses mayores en su obra: la imposibilidad de fundar una clínica que no dependa de la sugestión y la imposibilidad de pensar un lazo social ateo, es decir, no regulado por la culpa. Para llevar adelante este encuentro entre Freud y (...) Hobbes, este artículo recurre al concepto de “paradigma inmunitario” de Roberto Esposito. En este sentido el artículo muestra, junto a la lectura que René Girard hace de Totem y Tabú, que el concepto freudiano de sacrifi cio, lejos de apaciguar la ley totémica, la produce retroactivamente. La consecuencia de esta relación invertida entre ley y sacrifi cio ha sido caracterizada como la inevitable deriva tanatopolítica del liberalismo moderno: para conservar la vida, hay que sacrifi carla; para conservar la ley, hay que fundarla y refundarla con violência ilegítima. Es decir, una vez que la obra de Freud asume los presupuestos antropológicos hobbesianos, queda atrapada entre el fantasma del retorno destructivo del salvaje pre-social y la ley superyoica que, si bien parece ser la única capaz de controlar al salvaje, no hace sino que perpetuar su violencia y la necesidad de repetir el sacrificio. (shrink)

Na presente investigação, objetivou-se analisar, a partir do referencial teórico e metodológico pós-estruturalista, os conceitos de Ciência, Tecnologia e Sociedade na trama com a educação e o ensino de Ciências. Como substrato teórico são utilizadas obras de Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze e Felix Guattari, ofertando pistas para ampliar a discussão destes conceitos. Na reunião dos saberes investigados, afirma-se um pensamento científico que desenvolve a produção de sentidos para a educação. Diante do exposto, pensa-se em um ensino, que crie estratégias de (...) existências, que reivindique a trama de teorias e práticas, operando os conteúdos científicos na Sociedade. (shrink)

O objetivo deste trabalho é discutir o que significa ler e escrever no pensamento de Friedrich Nietzsche. Criticando a supremacia da subjetividade que coloca o corpo em segundo plano, o filósofo revela que escrever é mais do que formar sentenças. Junto com o escrever, há uma maneira artística de um autor mostrar os próprios impulsos e vivências. E também o leitor deve prestar atenção e reconhecer nos textos sua própria experiência de vida. O estilo nietzschiano não é sistemático. Isso já (...) prova que ele se preocupou mais com seus próprios instintos criativos do que com as regras impostas pela tradição, dando uma nova perspectiva às artes de escrever, ler, interpretar e criar. (shrink)

We present a generalization of Segerberg's onion semantics for belief revision, in which the linearity of the spheres need not occur. The resulting logic is called broccoli logic. We provide a minimal relational logic, with a bi-modal neighborhood semantics. We then show that broccoli logic is a well-known conditional logic, the Burgess-Veltman minimal conditional logic.

La délibération publique entre citoyens doit-elle être le fondement de la légitimité proprement démocratique des décisions politiques? Cet article analyse les arguments avancés en ce sens par les premiers écrits sur la démocratie délibérative. Si la délibération individuelle est requise par la recherche de l’autonomie personnelle et de la satisfaction de l’intérêt particulier, la délibération collective n’est quant à elle une condition ni nécessaire ni suffisante pour atteindre l’autonomie politique et le bien commun. Elle seule permet toutefois de poursuivre ces (...) fins en égaux. (shrink)

Child mortality (the mortality of children less than five years old) declined considerably in the developing world in the 1990s, but infant mortality declined less. The reductions in neonatal mortality were not impressive and, as a consequence, there is an increasing percentage of infant deaths in the neonatal period. Any further reduction in child mortality, therefore, requires an understanding of the determinants of neonatal mortality. 209,628 birth and 2581 neonatal death records for the 1998 birth cohort from the city of (...) São Paulo, Brazil, were probabilistically matched. Data were from SINASC and SIM, Information Systems on Live Births and Deaths of Brazil. Logistic regression was used to find the association between neonatal mortality and the following risk factors: birth weight, gestational age, Apgar scores at 1 and 5 minutes, delivery mode, plurality, sex, maternal education, maternal age, number of prior losses, prenatal care, race, parity and community development. Infants of older mothers were less likely to die in the neonatal period. Caesarean delivery was not found to be associated with neonatal mortality. Low birth weight, pre-term birth and low Apgar scores were associated with neonatal death. Having a mother who lives in the highest developed community decreased the odds of neonatal death, suggesting that factors not measured in this study are behind such association. This result may also indicate that other factors over and above biological and more proximate factors could affect neonatal death. (shrink)

Este estudio propone una hipótesis de lectura de la Scienza nuova fundada en una redefinición de la noción de razón en Vico. Radicalmente opuesta a la razón cartesiana, que se repliega sobre sí misma, la razón de Vico es movimiento, riesgo, apertura. Al salir de sí misma, la razón ha de metamorfosearse y, para ello, ha de adoptar nuevos instrumentos y nuevos criterios . Este nuevo status de la razón confiere un sentido particular a la empresa científica de Vico al (...) ligar exigencias prácticas con dificultades epistemológicas.This paper proposes an hypothesis to reading the Scienza Nuova based upon a re-definition of Vico's notion of reason. Radically opposed to that of Descartes's, which bends on itself, Vico's reason is movement, risk, aperture. When reason comes out from within, it has to metamorphoses and in doing so it has to employ new means and new criteria . This new status of reason provides Vico's scientific enterprise with a particular meaning since it links practical claims with epistemological difficulties. (shrink)

Para construir seu próprio edifício filosófico em _Diferença e Repetição_, Deleuze dedicou-se no início de sua trajetória à pesquisa sistemática daquilo que chamou de “linhagem menor” em história da filosofia. Neste artigo buscamos explorar especificamente o embate deleuziano com o pensamento de Leibniz, situado no limiar dessa linhagem. Embora uma monografia mais extensiva tenha sido publicada por Deleuze apenas décadas mais tarde, seguimos a hipótese de que seus primeiros esboços críticos sobre o pensamento leibniziano aparecem já no seminário _O que (...) é fundar?_, endereçado ao problema do fundamento. À luz desse texto, abre-se uma perspectiva produtiva para a compreensão da relação entre as filosofias dos dois pensadores. (shrink)

Ceteris Paribus clauses in reasoning are used to allow for defeaters of norms, rules or laws, such as in von Wright’s example “I prefer my raincoat over my umbrella, everything else being equal”. In earlier work, a logical analysis is offered in which sets of formulas Γ, embedded in modal operators, provide necessary and sufficient conditions for things to be equal in ceteris paribus clauses. For most laws, the set of things allowed to vary is small, often finite, and so (...) Γ is typically infinite. Yet the axiomatisation they provide is restricted to the special and atypical case in which Γ is finite. We address this problem by being more flexible about ceteris paribus conditions, in two ways. The first is to offer an alternative, slightly more general semantics, in which the set of formulas only give necessary but not sufficient conditions. This permits a simple axiomatisation. (shrink)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, and there is currently no cure. The “β‐amyloid cascade hypothesis” of AD is the basis of current understanding of AD pathogenesis and drug discovery. However, no AD models have fully validated this hypothesis. We recently developed a human stem cell culture model of AD by cultivating genetically modified human neural stem cells in a three‐dimensional (3D) cell culture system. These cells were able to recapitulate key events of AD pathology including (...) β‐amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. In this review, we will discuss the progress and current limitations of AD mouse models and human stem cell models as well as explore the breakthroughs of 3D cell culture systems. We will also share our perspective on the potential of dish models of neurodegenerative diseases for studying pathogenic cascades and therapeutic drug discovery. (shrink)

Empirismo logico e gli inizi della filosofia della scienza -- Oltre l'empirismo logico -- I modi del ragionamento scientifico -- La probabilità -- La spiegazione scientifica -- Realismo e antirealismo scientifica -- Filosofie delle scienze -- Scienza e valore.

Putting subjectivity back in psychology and in social sciences is the aim of this volume. Subjectivity is a core psychological dimension but frequently forgotten. Without a full understanding of the uniqueness of each human life our understanding of psychological life fails to reach its aim. This book explores precisely the field of subjectivity, offering the reader different and innovative views on this challenging theme. This book is an asset for all those interested in understanding how the mind operates as a (...) subjectifying process and how this subjectifying mind is simultaneously the product and the content of feeling an unique and unrepeatable subjective life. By bringing together renowned and emergent experts in the field, it provides a fresh new look on the human mind. The reader will find thought-provoking and challenging contributions of 26 different scholars, from 10 countries. It covers a wide range of perspectives and approaches, such as dialogical perspectives, cultural psychology approaches, developmental psychology, feminist perspectives, semiotics, and anthropology. This volume will be very much recommended for all sorts of scholars and students in social and human sciences interested in the human mind and in subjectivity. It will be adequate for different levels of teaching, from undergraduate to master courses. It also meant to be understood for all readers interested in the topic. (shrink)

A educação do negro na imprensa paulista do fim do século XIX Resumo: O presente artigo é parte de uma pesquisa que contempla os projetos para a educação dos ingênuos veiculados na imprensa paulista entre a promulgação da Lei do Vente Livre e os anos subsequentes à abolição da escravidão. Tomando como pressuposto que as ideias são produtos culturais gestados em redes de sociabilidade, analisamos de que maneira as noções acerca de raça e modernização relacionavam-se às propostas educativas para os (...) filhos de escravas na imprensa, suporte material privilegiado para tal circulação de ideias. Trabalhando com três periódicos que julgamos representativos dos segmentos identificados como “imprensa branca”, “imprensa negra” e “imprensa abolicionista”, tidos como fonte e objeto, notamos diferenças substanciais na abordagem relativa ao tema, mesmo identificando o trânsito de colaboradores entre espaços de sociabilidade comuns.Palavras-chave: História da Educação. Raízes da educação brasileira. Cultura afro-brasileira. Education of black people in the press of São Paulo during 19th century: This article is a part of a research that intends to present the educational projects for slave’s children published in the São Paulo press between the promulgation of free womb law and the first years after the liberty of slaves, as a part of our master thesis. Thus, we analised how the relations between ideas of race and modernity and the education proposals for slave’s children were presented in the press, having the premise that ideas are cultural products from sociability networks and the journals the material pillar for the ideas’ circulation. Contemplated as historical source and research object, tree journals we consider representative of kinds of press named as “white press”, “black press” and “abolitionist press” were analyzed, in which we notice distinctive differences, although it is noteworthy that collaborators sometimes were in the same sociability places. Keywords: History of education. Roots of Brazilian education. Afro-Brazilian culture La educación del negro en la prensa paulista de finales del siglo XIX Resumen: El presente artículo, como parte de una investigación académica más amplia, abarca los proyectos para la educación de los ingenuos vehiculados en la prensa paulista entre la promulgación de la Ley del Vientre Libre y los años subsiguientes a la abolición de la esclavitud. Tenido como presupuesto que las ideas son productos culturales criados en redes de sociabilidad, analizamos de qué manera las ideas acerca de la raza y de la modernización se referían a las propuestas educativas para los hijos de las esclavas en tres vehículos de la prensa, suporte material privilegiado para tal circulación de ideas. Tomando para análisis tres jornales que consideramos representativo de lo que identificamos como “prensa branca”, “prensa negra” y “prensa abolicionista”, entendido como fuente y objeto histórico, notamos diferencias substanciales en la abordaje relativa al tema, aunque tenido identificado el tránsito de colaboradores entre los espacios de sociabilidad comunes.Palabras clave: Historia de la Educación. Raíces de la educación brasileña. Cultura afro-brasileña Data de registro: 24/02/2019 Data de aceite: 29/10/2020 Apoio: CAPES. (shrink)

RESUMO: O objetivo deste artigo é tomar a crítica de Durkheim ao epifenomenismo em psicologia para demonstrar o modo pelo qual sua sociologia mobiliza questões e problemas característicos da filosofia francesa de finais do século XIX. Primeiramente, descreveremos o recurso de Durkheim a teses advindas da filosofia, visando a apontar as insuficiências da psicofisiologia na definição da vida psíquica. Nessa ocasião, apresentaremos a consonância do ponto de vista de Durkheim com as concepções de seu contemporâneo, Bergson. Em seguida, demonstraremos que (...) não se trata para Durkheim de simplesmente duplicar as teses da filosofia. A partir de uma analogia entre a consciência individual e a consciência coletiva, Durkheim tomará um pressuposto fundamental retirado da crítica filosófica ao epifenomenismo - a saber, a autonomia e a independência relativa do espírito para com seu substrato - e o estenderá à sua concepção de sociedade. Por fim, autorizados por Durkheim, que admite que o problema da gênese do coletivo a partir do individual é um problema sociologicamente insolúvel, destinado à metafísica resolver, evidenciaremos como a filosofia espiritualista, comemorada por Durkheim como prestando grandes serviços à ciência, poderia contribuir na elucidação desse problema. ABSTRACT: The purpose of this article is employing Durkheim's criticism of epiphenomenalism in psychology to demonstrate the way his sociological work mobilizes characteristic subjects and problems of the late nineteenth century French philosophy. Firstly we will describe Durkheim's approach to the philosophical thesis in order to point out the insufficiencies of the psychophysiology on the definition of psychic life. We proceed to present the consonance of Durkheim's point of view with the conceptions of his contemporary, Bergson. We are willing to demonstrate that Durkheim is not concerned with the mere reproduction of philosophical theses. After establishing an analogy between the individual and collective consciousness, Durkheim will take a fundamental assumption inspired by a philosophical critique of epiphenomenalism - namely, the autonomy and the relative independence of spirit toward his substrate - and extend it to their own conception of society. Finally, in accordance with Durkheim, who admits that the problem of the genesis of the collective from individual is a sociologically insoluble problem, and that its resolution is a metaphysical task, we intend to demonstrate how the spiritualistic philosophy, celebrated by Durkheim as providing great services to science, could contribute for the elucidation of this enigmatic process. (shrink)

The comparative study of mysticism and inter-religious spirituality has gained more space in universities and research centers that radiate everywhere. They are also research involving Eastern religions, in its peculiar mystical trait. Also in the context of Buddhism one can talk on spirituality, understood as a search path of liberation. This article presents the theme of Zen Buddhist spirituality based on the reflection of Eihei Dogen Zenji (1200 – 1253), one of the most important and prominent teachers of the Soto (...) Zen Tradition. This text aims to show the richness of spirituality and its peculiarity concerning the everyday reality. To promote understanding of the central question presented, the theme of spirituality was situated within the historical context of the birth of Zen Buddhism and the insertion of the presence of Dogen in its field of action. The theme of Zen spirituality was becoming evident in the approach to the problem of search of the Dharma in Dogen and his attention to small signs of everyday life. Keywords: Spirituality. Buddhism. Zen. Daily life. Religions. Resumo Os estudos de mística comparada e de espiritualidade interreligiosa vão ganhando espaço cada vez mais singular nas universidades e núcleos de pesquisa que se irradiam por toda parte. São pesquisas que envolvem também as religiões orientais, em seu traço místico peculiar. Também no âmbito do budismo pode-se falar em espiritualidade, entendida como um caminho de busca da libertação. Esse artigo visa apresentar o tema da espiritualidade zen budista, com base na reflexão de Eihei Dôgen Zenji (1200-1253), um dos mais importantes e destacados mestres da tradição Soto Zen. O objetivo é mostrar a riqueza dessa espiritualidade e sua peculiaridade de adesão à realidade cotidiana. Para favorecer a compreensão da questão central apresentada, visou-se situar a temática no âmbito do contexto histórico do nascimento do zen budismo e da inserção da presença de Dôgen em seu campo de ação. A temática da espiritualidade zen foi se evidenciando na abordagem da problemática da busca do Dharma em Dôgen e de sua atenção aos pequenos sinais do cotidiano. Palavras-Chave : Espiritualidade. Budismo. Zen. Cotidiano. Religiões. (shrink)

Partimos da afirmação de K.-O. Apel, repetida por João Maria André, de que "[...] é na ‘mística' do ‘logos' e na teologia negativa do Pseudo-Dionísio que, de modo determinante, Nicolau de Cusa irá beber os traços fundamentais da sua filosofia da linguagem". Com base no De filiatione Dei propomo-nos refletir sobre a relação fundamental e constitutiva entre o verbo mental humano e o Verbo ou Logos eterno. A importância desse texto, no âmbito do problema da linguagem em Nicolau de Cusa, (...) é reconhecida por Casarella justamente por sua inflexão cristológica em relação aos primeiros sermões, pois, em oposição à reflexão intratrinitária dos sermões, a imagem humanamente visível de Cristo torna-se o espelho da linguagem, ou seja, em Cristo, vemos de modo perfeito o que pode ser expresso por meio da linguagem. O texto cusano é uma meditação sobre Jo, I, 12: "Mas a todos que o receberam deu o poder de se tornarem filhos de Deus: aos que creem em seu nome". Interessa-nos principalmente a meditação sobre os exemplos aduzidos por Nicolau de Cusa para explicitar de que modo colhemos a unidade divina intelectualmente, pois serão nesses exemplos ou enigmas que o autor pensará a relação constitutiva entre o verbo mental humano e o verbo mental inefável. We begin with the statement of K.-O. Apel, repeated by João Maria André, that "[…] it is in the ‘mystic' of the ‘logos' and in the negative theology of pseudo-Dionysus that, in a determinate manner, Cusa would receive the fundamental features of his philosophy of language". Based on De filiatione Dei, we reflect on the fundamental and constitutive relationship between the mental human word and the eternal Word or Logos. The importance of this text in the context of the problem of language in Cusa is recognized by Casarella, specifically for its Christological inflection in relation to Cusa's first sermons. In opposition to the intra-Trinitarian reflection of the sermons, in De filiatione Dei the humanly visible image of Christ becomes the mirror of language; that is, it is in Christ that we see the perfect mode that can be expressed by means of language. Cusa's text is a meditation on John 1:12: "But as many as received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name". Of principal interest to us are the examples adduced by Cusa that make explicit the way in which we intellectually receive the divine unity, as it is in these examples or enigmas that the author reflects on the constitutive relation between the mental human word and the ineffable mental word. (shrink)

Quando lemos as Meditações Metafísicas de Descartes percebemos que o filósofo parece não confiar na imaginação, porque ela obtém suas informações pelos sentidos do corpo e os sentidos por vezes sãoenganadores, produzindo percepções obscuras e confusas. Esse posicionamento de Descartes sobre a imaginação é compartilhado por vários filósofos modernos. A influência cartesiana na formação do pensamento espinosano é incontestável, por isso somos quase de imediato induzidos a procurar semelhanças e pontos em comum entre ambos. Todavia, é preciso ter cautela para (...) identificar que apesar de estarem sob os mesmos limites conceituais, esses filósofos divergem em alguns pontos e às vezesaté se opõem. O objetivo do nosso trabalho é apresentar o que Espinosa pensava sobre os limites da imaginação e, principalmente, sobre sua potência. (shrink)

RESUMO O objetivo deste artigo é apresentar, tomando por referência a filosofia de Henri Bergson e a fisiologia experimental de Claude Bernard, dois esforços análogos, ainda que sem relação direta em suas origens, em face de imperativos que se colocam ao sujeito do conhecimento que se ocupa da vida. Tentaremos mostrar, autorizados pelo próprio Bergson, no interior de determinada prática científica representada pela fisiologia experimental de Claude Bernard, uma atitude diante dos fatos orgânicos que não é o monopólio de uma (...) filosofia que se ocupa da verificação das condições e dos limites do conhecimento da vida, problemática que, na filosofia francesa do século XX, encontra em L’Évolution créatrice uma expressão incontornável. ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to present, taking as reference Henri Bergson’s philosophy and Claude Bernard’s experimental physiology, two analogous efforts, despite a lack of direct relation in terms of their origins, resulting from some obligations posed to the subject of knowledge who takes life as a matter of theoretical analysis. Authorized by Bergson himself, we will try to show, within a scientific practice represented by Claude Bernard’s experimental physiology, an attitude towards organic facts that is not the monopoly of a philosophy which seeks to elucidate the conditions and limits of life knowledge, a theoretical problem which, in the twentieth century French philosophy finds in the Creative Evolution its essential expression. (shrink)